Rwanda held its presidential and parliamentary elections on 15 July 2024. Incumbent President Paul Kagame, leader of the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), won a fourth term in office with 99.18% of the votes. The RPF also won 68.83% of the 53 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Following the 2024 parliamentary elections, women’s representation in the lower house increased from 61.3% to 63.8%. Rwanda thus remains the country with the highest female representation in parliament globally.
On 15 July 2024, the Republic of Rwanda held its presidential and parliamentary elections. The 2024 polls marked the first time Rwanda held the elections concurrently. Interest in the elections was high, with 98% of eligible voters participating. Women make up 53% of voters, compared to 47% men. Incumbent President Paul Kagame, leader of Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), won, securing 99.18% of the votes. Frank Habineza, leader of the Democratic Green Party, received 0.5% of the votes, and independent Philippe Mpayimana, 0.32%. There were no female presidential candidates.
Some described the presidential polls “as a formality” with the two other presidential candidates competing kept under tight control. President Kagame has been in office since 2000, and with 65% of Rwanda’s population under 30 years, he is the only President many have ever known. President Kagame was first directly elected in 2003 and 2010. In 2015, Rwanda amended its Constitution. The amendments reduced the term of office for the President from seven to five years with a two-term limit. The amendments also permitted President Kagame to seek a third term in 2017 (until 2024) and then seek the first of potentially two five-year terms in 2024.
In the parliamentary polls, Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), led by President Kagame, obtained 37 (68.83%) of the 53 seats up for election in the Chamber of Deputies. While the Liberal Party and Social Party Imberakuri each secured 5 seats, the Ideal Democratic Party and Democratic Green Party of Rwanda gained 2 seats, respectively.
The elections were held as Rwanda commemorated the 30th anniversary of the genocide. The political environment during the polls was characterised by "severe restrictions" on political opposition with arbitrary detentions, killings, enforced disappearances, instability and regional tensions with its neighbour the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Before the elections, authorities in Rwanda also cracked down on civil society and the media according to Human Rights Watch (HRW).
According to the African Union (AU) and the Common Market for Easter and Southern Africa (COMESA) Joint Election Observation Mission to the general elections in the Republic of Rwanda, voting remained peaceful.
Women’s political participation and representation in Senegal
The 2024 parliamentary elections saw an increase in the percentage of women elected from 61.3% (49 out of 80 seats) in 2018 to 63.8% (51 out of 80 seats) in 2024. Of the 80 members in the Chamber of Deputies, 27 are indirectly elected. Of these, 24 women are elected by the electoral colleges from each Province and the City of Kigali, two members by the National Youth Council and one by the Federation of the Association of the Disabled. All members of the Chamber of Deputies serve five-year terms.
Following the 2024 elections, one woman - Vanessa Umuhoza Gashumba- was chosen out of the two members elected by the National Youth Council and one – Ms Olivia Mbabazi - by the Federation of the Association of the Disabled. In her manifesto as a candidate for Parliament, Vanessa Umuhoza Gashumba said she would promote technological innovation and youth entrepreneurship.
In the 2024 polls, just under half of the candidates competing for the 53 directly elected seats were women. A total of 199 competed for these 24 reserved seats. 3 out of 13 candidates competing for the one seat reserved for persons with disabilities were women, and 9 women out of 31 candidates competed for the two seats reserved for youth.
15 women, who served in the previous parliament, campaigned to serve again. Among those seeking re-election were members of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) which scrutinises accountability issues in public entities Ms Christine Bakundifite, Germaine Mukabalisa and Beline Uwineza. Others include Madina Ndangiza, Alice Muzana, Solange Uwingabe, Veneranda Uwamariya, Phoebe Kanyange, Speciose Ayinkamiye, Alphonsine Mukamana, Angelique Nyirabazayire, Marie Claire Uwumuremyi, Winifrida Mpembyemungu, Odette Uwamariya and Cecile Murumunawab.
In September 2024, Rwanda held indirect Senate elections. Women gained 14 (53.8%) out of 26 seats. 10 of the female senators were indirectly elected, and 4 appointed. It represents an increase from the previous indirect polls when 10 female senators were elected (33.3%). Of these 6 were indirectly elected and 4 appointed. The Senate comprises 26 members. Of those, 12 are indirectly elected by local councils, 8 appointed by the President, 4 elected by the Forum of Political Organisations and the remaining two indirectly elected by institutions of higher learning. Members of the Senate serve five-year terms
To date, no female candidate has been elected President of Rwanda. In 2010, Alvera Mukabaramba was a candidate in the presidential elections. She ultimately received 0.4% of the votes. In the 2024 presidential polls, two women - Ms Diane Rwigara and Ms Victoire Ingabire - declared their intentions to run. Ms Diane Rwigara was barred from running because she did not meet the requirement for 600 signature endorsements, failed to provide the correct documentation to show she had no criminal record and was Rwandan by birth. In 2017, when Ms Rwigara declared that she would run for the presidency as an independent candidate and campaigned on issues such as eradicating poverty and addressing injustice and insecurity. However, she was barred from participating in the 2017 presidential polls due to allegations of forging signatures of supporters for her application. She was imprisoned over charges of inciting insurrection and forgery but acquitted in 2018.
Ms Victoire Ingabire petitioned the court to remove her conviction to allow her to run in the 2024 presidential election. However, the court rejected her request. Her conviction made her ineligible to run. In 2010, she was a candidate in the presidential polls but was arrested and sentenced to 15 years for inciting insurrection. She was released in 2018 after receiving a pardon. Ms Ingabire, president of the Development and Liberty for All (Développement et Liberté pour tous, also known as Dalfa-Umurinzi) Party, is a known critic of President Kagame and Dalfa-Umurinzi has not been allowed to register or participate in elections.
In the current Rwandan government, 10 (33%) of the 30 ministers are women. They are:
- Ms Judith Uwizeye, Minister in the Office of the President
- Ms Ines Mpambara, Minister in the Office of the Prime Minister
- Ms Mutesi Linda Rusagara, Minister of State for Resource Mobilisation and Public Investment in
- Ms Claudette Irere, Minister of State for Education
- Ms Paula Ingabire, Minister of ICT and Innovation
- Ms Marie-Solange Kayisire, Minister of State for Local Government
- Ms Consolee Uwimana, Minister of Gender and Family Promotion
- Ambassador Christine Nkulikiyinka, Minister of Public Service and Labor
- Dr Valentine Uwamariya, Minister of Environment
- Ms Sandrine Umutoni, Minister of State for Youth
Rwandan women have also held other leadership positions. In 1993, Agathe Uwilingiyimana was appointed Prime Minister. She is the first and only woman to serve in this role. Ms Uwilingiyimana has been described as a “feminist who vehemently opposed any form of inequality.” The current speaker of the Chamber of Deputies is Gertrude Kazarwa. She follows Ms Donatille Mukabalisa, who was first elected speaker in 2013 and reelected in 2028. In 2004, Judge Aloysie Cyanzayire made history when she became the first female Chief Justice in Rwanda.
Legal and policy reforms on women’s rights
For over two decades, Rwanda has adopted legislation strengthening women’s and girls’ rights and promoting gender equality. These efforts and other reforms have facilitated and promoted women’s political participation. Rwanda maintains legislated quotas for both houses of parliament and at the sub-national level. The 2003 Rwandan Constitution establishes that women shall occupy at least 30% of positions in decision-making organs. It also provides that 30% of the members of the Chamber of Deputies and in the Senate must be women. Furthermore, the Law on Political Organisations and Politicians states that party lists for all elective offices must contain at least 30% female candidates. However, it does not include any provisions on the rank order of women candidates.
Other legislative reforms positively impact Rwandan women’s participation and representation by reducing inequalities. For example, Rwanda has enacted legislation guaranteeing equal inheritance rights and equal property management among married couples (Law Nº 27/2016) and equal rights to land access, ownership and utilisation to both men and women (Law No 43/2013). Other legislation provides protection against gender-based violence (GBV) and harassment in employment (Law N° 66/2018), criminalises GBV, marital rape and forced marriage (Law Nº 68/2018) and provides women with 14 weeks of maternity leave (Law No. 27/2023).
Finally, the Rwandan government has implemented institutional reforms to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment. For example, the 2003 Constitution also established two special organs: the Gender Monitoring Office and the National Women Council.
Challenges to women’s political participation
While the quota implemented and other legislative and policy reforms and initiatives have positively impacted women’s political participation at the national level, they have yet to achieve similar results at the local levels and in other spheres. Women’s representation at the local level varies and remains below parity in many leadership positions. For example, figures show that 29.6% of women serve as District mayors and 14.8% of District vice mayors are in charge of economic affairs. However, 46.1% of women are members of District Councils.
Despite the progress made and the long record of a majority representation of Rwandan women in the legislature, challenges and barriers remain. Rwandan society is described as patriarchal and conservative and men still dominate across many decision-making spheres. Political parties, in particular its leadership, do not always support women, a practice that contributes to maintaining barriers. Thus, while women are in the majority, male-dominated structures remain and men hold “two-thirds of senior positions.”
Additionally, political parties, particularly the RPF play a significant role in women’s political participation as most female members of parliament belong to the party or one of its coalition partners. Moreover, the RPF nominates or is a part of vetting female candidates for the specially reserved seats for women. Women who have access to political participation tend to come from elite backgrounds.
Patriarchal and social norms and traditional gender roles persist. While Rwandan women are increasingly holding leadership positions, interviews with female politicians showed they were still expected to take on domestic work, with some women reporting that they “feared violence from their husbands if they did not comply with these expectations.” Furthermore, some women in leadership positions reported they found “their competencies and capabilities questioned.” Research also showed that women in public office are expected to serve their country through work and career and advocate for stronger women’s rights laws while being docile and serving their husbands at home. Gender-based violence remains prevalent in Rwanda. Moreover, reports show that women seeking political office or holding decision-making positions spend less time at home, which is negatively viewed by their husbands and may result in an increased incidence of domestic violence.
Financial constraints are another barrier to Rwandan women’s political participation. For example, Ms Angelique Twagiramungu, a candidate for one of the 24 reserved seats for women in 2013, withdrew due to financial constraints. Lack of funding for campaign-related expenses often hinders candidates from running or severely limits female candidates’ ability to reach voters. Some of the challenges related to financial resources stem from inequalities in economic life. Rwandan women have higher unemployment rates than men. Figures suggest that 77% of Rwandan women rely on agriculture as their primary source of income and 89.15% of Rwandan women work in the informal sector. Studies show that female-headed households “ have higher poverty rates than male-headed households in Rwanda.” Moreover, in rural areas, although the law provides for equality women seeking a loan are often asked if she has their husband’s permission.
Women in Rwanda advocating for change
Rwandan women have a long history of activism and participation. In the aftermath of the genocide in the country, women played a key role in promoting peace, unity and reconciliation, and they made up 50.2% of community mediation and conflict resolution committees “Abunzi”. Through civil society organisations and serving in political and other leadership positions, they continue to play a key role in advocating for women’s and girls’ rights in Rwanda.
The increased female representation in the Rwandan legislature has also positively impacted the adoption of gender-responsive legislation. The Forum of Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP) has played a significant role in advancing women’s rights laws on equal pay, preventing harassment and discrimination at work, equal rights to access and own land, and preventing and punishing gender-based violence and violence against children. They also contributed to amending the Civil Code to guarantee equal inheritance and succession rights and removing discriminatory provisions from the laws governing political parties and politicians.
There have also been efforts to increase The Rwanda Association of Local Government Authorities (RALGA) and the Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion (MIGEPROF) organised, together with UN Women, the "Leveraging the Potential of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment to Achieve Rwanda’s Transformation" project from 2019 – 2024. The project aimed to increase women’s participation in local governance and provide young women with the skills and experiences necessary to “overcome barriers to leadership in their communities and local government structures.”
Women’s groups and civil society actors also advocate for Rwandan women’s and girls’ rights in other areas. For example, the Rwandan Women’s Network invests in female leadership development and works with local communities to ensure accountability. Among its initiatives, The Rwandan Women’s Network provides gender-based violence prevention and support by establishing safe places across Rwanda. Haguruka, a Rwandan women’s and children’s rights organisation, empowers “women and children to claim their rights by improving their access to quality justice across” Rwanda. Among its efforts, the organisation provides legal aid services and advocates for policy improvement and enforcement.
Conclusion
Following the 2024 presidential and parliamentary polls, RPF gained the presidency and the most seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Incumbent President Kagame secured a fourth term in office after receiving 99.18% of the votes. No female candidate participated in the presidential polls. Women, however, increased their representation in the Chamber of Deputies from 61.3% to 63.8%. Similarly, in the indirect Senate elections held in September 2024, the percentage of female senators increased from 33.3% to 53.8%.
The adoption of the quota has had a positive impact on Rwandan women’s representation in political offices at the national level. Since 2003, Rwanda has had the highest percentage of women in parliament (lower/single house) on IPU’s Monthly ranking of women in national parliaments. Moreover, since 2013 Rwanda has been the only country where women make up the majority (over 60%) of the members in the lower/single house of parliament. The increased female representation, in part driven by the FFRP, also positively impacted the adoption of legislation on gender equality and women’s empowerment.
While women’s representation at the national level remains high and they increasingly hold leadership positions, they struggle at the local level and, the country has yet to elect a female president. The challenges can partly be explained by a patriarchal society, economic challenges and strongly held social norms and perceptions of gender roles. And social norms, as one Rwandan woman noted, take time to change. Nevertheless, increased female presence, research has shown, does not only have a symbolic value. It also contributes towards increasing respect for women and their views and breaking gender stereotypes by taking on jobs previously considered only for men. Moreover, Rwandan women’s groups and activists along with female members of parliament remain committed to addressing remaining inequalities and challenges. Through their activism, advocacy and initiatives, Rwanda may not only maintain its high level of female representation at the national level. It may also increase it at the local level, and elect the country’s first female President.